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Space Security Index. Space Security 2008. Waterloo, Ontario: Space Security Index, September 2008. [ 13 quotes ]

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US Air Force is Building up its Capacity to Jam and Deny Adversarial Space Systems
 
The USAF initiated an upgrade of the CounterCom satellite jamming system it first deployed in 2004.The CounterCom system is a "mobile, ground-based antenna that can jam the signals from a single satellite in geosynchronous orbit." The upgrade aims to fully equip two squadrons with seven jamming systems, up from the current two. USAF also started pre-acquisition work for next-generation jammers, which will have "enhanced capabilities for SATCOMdenial" using largely commercially available components.The USAF also intends to reduce the number of authorization steps and shorten the decision time to launch offensive cyber attacks against enemy networks. The goal is to provide lower-ranking officers with the authority to launch attacks so that they could take place within minutes. Currently the only authority rests with the President and the Secretary of. Electronic jamming is in keeping with the USAF preference for temporary and reversible means of space systems negation. In 2007 the US Army reported that it had deployed and is using a "wildly successful" ground-based system that is complementary to the USAF CounterCom to deny US enemies the ability to use commercial space capabilities.
Space Security Index. Space Security 2008. Waterloo, Ontario: Space Security Index, September 2008. [ 13 quotes ] [ page 159 ]
Long History of Attempts to Establish International Space Surveillance Mechanism
 
Space surveillance capabilities are vital to the mitigation of environmental hazards. There is no international space surveillance mechanism, but several efforts to create one date to the 1980s. In 1986 Canada presented the so-called PAXSAT study, which proposed a space-to-space remote sensing system (PAXSAT A) based on non-superpower technology available at the time. In 1989 France proposed the creation of an Earth-based space surveillance system consisting of radar and optical sensors to allow the international community to track the trajectory of space objects. This proposal was presented in the Conference on Disarmament and evolved into a proposal to establish a UN International Trajectography Centre (UNITRACE). It was suggested that, in the context of rapid technological advances and easier access to high-quality information, the UNITRACE proposal could be revisited and updated. Such an initiative could complement the US-Russian agreement to establish the Joint Center for the Exchange of Data from Early Warning Systems and Notification of Missile Launches and would be consistent with that agreement's anticipated multilateralization. In the absence of an international system, countries are establishing independent space surveillance capabilities, with some degree of information exchange.
Space Security Index. Space Security 2008. Waterloo, Ontario: Space Security Index, September 2008. [ 13 quotes ] [ page 34 ]
U.S. Efforts to Improve its Space Surveillance Capabilities are Under-Funded and Behind Schedule
 
The broader category of space situational awareness, within which space surveillance is a primary capability, remains one of the "most urgent space security shortcomings" of the US, according to leading experts. The US has programs to bolster such capabilities, but they are generally under-funded and behind schedule. The US Deep View program plans to develop a high-resolution radar-imaging capability to characterize smaller objects in Earth orbit by 2010. The US Space Surveillance Telescope program intends to "demonstrate an advanced ground-based optical system to enable detection and tracking of faint objects in space, while providing rapid, wide-area search capability" by 2009. The Space Based Space Surveillance System (SBSS) is being developed to enhance capabilities for identifying and tracking debris in GEO, however the Orbital Deep Space Imager program was cancelled in 2006. This capability is also relevant for the broader US space control mission.
Space Security Index. Space Security 2008. Waterloo, Ontario: Space Security Index, September 2008. [ 13 quotes ] [ page 35 ]
Growing Controversy over Spread of Commercial Satellite Imagery, especially Google Earth
 
Ongoing efforts to regulate access to commercial satellite imagery Controversy surrounding the potential use of Google Earth images by terrorists in Iraq in 2007 sheds light on the ongoing struggle between access to commercial space services and security needs. Although commercial services such as Google Earth are composed of unclassified photos many states have raised concerns and it is now routine for many commercial images to be blocked. Google replaced the images of Iraq with prewar data following complaints by the British government, and was asked by the Indian government to blur what it referred to as strategic locations in India. Similar policies exist in many other countries including Australia, Russia, South Korea, Thailand, and Israel. In 2007, as commercial providers launched new, improved capabilities, the Director of the National Geospacial-Intelligence Agency acknowledged that controls on distribution might need to be put in place. There is "little if any directly applicable international law" governing the controversy. Images of China's new Jin-class submarine also appeared on Google Earth in July 2007.
Space Security Index. Space Security 2008. Waterloo, Ontario: Space Security Index, September 2008. [ 13 quotes ] [ page 108 ]
Israel Launched Half-Meter Imaging Satellite in 2007 and is Developing a Synthetic Aperture Radar Satellite
 
On 11 June 2007 Israel launched the military optical remote sensing Ofeq-7 satellite, which became operational later that year. Ofeq-7 is the most advanced Earth imaging satellite launched from the Middle East, and significantly increases Israel's reconnaissance capabilities in the region. Its digital high-resolution camera can identify objects as small as approximately 0.5 meter. The lifespan of the satellite is expected to be four to six years. This enhanced optical imaging capability is expected to be complemented by the launch of Israel's TecSat (Polaris) SAR imaging satellite by ISRO in early 2008. The classified satellite encountered technical difficulties in 2007, pushing back its launch date. It is anticipated that its SAR technology will be capable of providing sharp pictures of sub-meter resolution, in all-day, all-weather, all-terrain conditions. Choosing India's launch service is thought to demonstrate a new era of significant military space cooperation between Israel and India.
Space Security Index. Space Security 2008. Waterloo, Ontario: Space Security Index, September 2008. [ 13 quotes ] [ page 132 ]
India's Cartosat-2A Remote Sensing Satellite likely being Used for Military Intelligence
 
India's Cartosat-2A was planned for launch in 2007, but delayed until 2008 for technical reasons. The original satellite Cartosat-2 was launched on 10 January 2007, but suffered problems once in orbit that affected the quality of its images. Cartosat-2A, intended for cartographic purposes, was built and will be operated by ISRO, but has dual-use military applications. Secretary of the Department of Space and Chairman of ISRO, G Madhavan Nair has explained that "[[w]e don't put a restriction on anybody using it," confirming beliefs that India's civil space program is available for military use. Indeed, earlier reports indicated that the Military Surveillance and Reconnaissance System to provide India with dedicated military satellite intelligence was to become operational by the end of 2007, but its current status is not clear. Cartosat-2A, like the original satellite, will carry a powerful panoramic camera and is intended to provide images with a resolution of one meter.
Space Security Index. Space Security 2008. Waterloo, Ontario: Space Security Index, September 2008. [ 13 quotes ] [ page 133 ]
U.S. is Developing Capabilities for Satellites to Detect and Respond to Attacks
 
Another approach to detection would be to place sensors on every satellite to allow the detection of nearby satellites and negation efforts. While no actor has fully developed these capabilities, the ongoing US Radio Frequency Threat Warning and Attack Reporting (RFTWARS) program aims to develop a lightweight, low-power radio frequency sensor suite to attach to individual satellites to provide situational awareness. The US is also developing capabilities to detect electromagnetic interference on satellites through its Rapid Attack Identification Detection and Reporting System (RAIDRS) program. This largely classified program is defined by the US as a defensive counterspace system designed to identify, locate, and report attacks on US space systems, thus enabling timely deployment of defensive responses. The system has been operating since 2005 with six fixed ground stations and three deployable ground segments. Finally, the USAF is developing the Autonomous Nanosatellite Guardian for Evaluating Local Space (ANGELS) to shadow a space asset and provide local, on-orbit space situational awareness and anomaly characterization. The first ANGELS launch is currently expected in 2009.
Space Security Index. Space Security 2008. Waterloo, Ontario: Space Security Index, September 2008. [ 13 quotes ] [ page 141 ]
Key Space Surveillance Programs Received Boost in Funds in 2007
 
In a related development, funding for SSA efforts was increased by more than $100-million by the US Congress in the FY2008 budget authorization. Programs that received additional funds include a variety of SSA and also potential space control functions including the Space Fence, RAIDRS, ORS, the Maui Space Surveillance System, Panoramic Survey Telescope and Rapid Response System, Space Situation Awareness research, the High Accuracy Network Discrimination System, Space Control, testing capabilities, and awareness. The Maui Space Surveillance System, which tracks satellites, is scheduled to receive $42-million, up from $5-million in FY2007. RAIDRS received an $11-million increase to $64-million. An initial cut in funding for the Space Fence was reversed and overall SSA operations spending was increased from $187-million to $197-million. The US Congress also directed the Secretary of Defense and Director of National Intelligence to create a Space Protection Strategy that establishes "the priority within the Nation's space programs on the protection of national security space systems," highlighting the growing vulnerability of space systems demonstrated by the Chinese satellite intercept. It claimed that protection and SSA capabilities could together help to mitigate that vulnerability and called for better coordination between the two.
Space Security Index. Space Security 2008. Waterloo, Ontario: Space Security Index, September 2008. [ 13 quotes ] [ page 143 ]
U.S. has Numerous Directed Energy Programs with Anti-Satellite Potential as Dazzling/Blinding Weapons
 
The ASAT potential of high-energy lasers has been extensively explored by the US the USSR/Russia and China. All states have access to low-powered lasers, which could be used to "dazzle" unhardened satellites in LEO, and many may already have the capability to use low-power lasers to degrade unhardened sensors on satellites in LEO. In 1997 the US Mid-Infrared Advanced Chemical Laser (MIRACL) was test fired against a satellite in a 420-km orbit, damaging the satellite's sensors. Reportedly, it was a 30-watt laser used for alignment that actually damaged the target satellite's sensors, suggesting that even a commercially available low-watt laser functioning from the ground could be used to "dazzle" or temporarily disrupt a satellite. The megawatt class MIRACL laser system is able to dazzle and blind sensors in GEO and heat to kill electronics on satellites in LEO — a significant ASAT capability. Similarly the USAF StarfireOptical Range at Kirtland Air Force Base inNew Mexico is undertaking laser experiments under the Advanced Weapons Technology program that was characterized as "experiments for application including antisatellite weapons" and called for a demonstration of "fully compensated beam propagation to Low-Earth orbit satellites" in the FY2007 budget request. Funding was only authorized after the USAF denied any intent to test Starfire as an ASAT. Until 2004 the US was developing a Counter Surveillance Reconnaissance System (CSRS) that employed lasers to temporarily disrupt surveillance satellites by dazzling their sensors.
Space Security Index. Space Security 2008. Waterloo, Ontario: Space Security Index, September 2008. [ 13 quotes ] [ page 164 ]
Current U.S. Funding for Prompt Global Strike will Allow for Key Technologies Needed in Space-Based Global Strike Weapons
 
Following Congressional testimony by the then Commander of USSTRATCOM, General Cartwright, the US Congress has refocused development efforts for a US prompt global strike capability. The FY2008 Defense Authorization bill provided $100-million for a new Prompt Global Strike program, combining funds from the US Navy Conventional Trident Modification Program and US Air Force Common Aero Vehicle (CAV – part of the Falcon program). It is unlikely that this program will result in the development of a space-based weapon system. The US Congress has issued explicit instructions to the Department of Defense about the areas to which funding can be applied and asked for a report on the future roadmap within 90 days of the bill's implementation. Still, several advanced enabling technologies will be developed, including "advanced propulsion, payload delivery and dispensing mechanisms, weapon system command and control, and advanced non-nuclear, kinetic, and other enabling capabilities," which would be required to support a space-based strike system.
Space Security Index. Space Security 2008. Waterloo, Ontario: Space Security Index, September 2008. [ 13 quotes ] [ page 182 ]
Significant International Cooperation Belies Claims of a "New Space Race to the Moon"
 
Despite claims of a new space race to the Moon, significant international cooperation is developing for Moon and Mars missions. In 2007 the 14 largest space agencies agreed to coordinate future space missions in a document titled "The Global Exploration Strategy: The Framework for Coordination," which highlights a shared vision of space exploration, focused on solar system destinations such as the Moon and Mars. It calls for a voluntary forum to assist coordination and collaboration for sustainable space exploration, although it does not establish a global space program. Chinese authorities have also indicated that a mechanism for cooperation is being developed in Asia among countries pursuing lunar exploration programs.
Space Security Index. Space Security 2008. Waterloo, Ontario: Space Security Index, September 2008. [ 13 quotes ] [ page 80-81 ]
India continues to consider an Aerospace Command and greater military use of space
 
In January 2007 the Indian Air Chief Marshall again announced plans for the establishment of the long-anticipated Indian Aerospace Command, originally envisioned as part of the Indian Air Force. This would substantially increase the role of India's military forces in space. However, instead of a fully fledged aerospace command, a space cell has been established under the Air Vice Marshal, and a dialogue on the shape of the eventual Command is expected to take place among the three branches of the Indian Armed Forces to establish a tri-services Aerospace Command. Training was also started for a core group of people to staff the Command in the future. In 2007 India also reportedly took steps to revise its defense doctrine to exploit the use of space to enhance the functional effectiveness of its armed forces. Indian Army Commanders ratified Space Vision 2020 — the philosophy of using space in future warfare — at an Army Commander's conference in October 2007. The document, drawn up by a special space cell at the Indian Army Headquarters, reportedly emphasizes aspects of force modernization, including battlefield transparency, long-range precision engagement, and integral air mobility. This follows a space policy reportedly developed by the Indian Air Force in 2007, as well as a new Air Force defense doctrine. Media reports indicate that the revised doctrine, which stresses the primacy of air power, also features the utilization of "space for real-time military communications and reconnaissance missions, ballistic missile defence and delivery of precision guided munitions through satellite signals."
Space Security Index. Space Security 2008. Waterloo, Ontario: Space Security Index, September 2008. [ 13 quotes ] [ page 65-66 ]
Greater Use of Space for Security Purposes Considered in Europe
 
The primary focus and competency of the EU in relation to space is on civil space applications, with military and defense issues the exclusive reserve of national governments. Nonetheless, the European Space Policy adopted in 2007 highlights implementation of the space dimension of the European Security and Defence Policy (ESDP). Since 2003 when the European Commission adopted the White Paper titled "Space: a new European frontier for an expanding Union," the EU has consistently stressed the strategic importance of space in implementing its Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP), including the ESDP. Along this line, the European space policy seeks to develop synergies between defense and civil space programs and also to guarantee EU independent access to space. While military space capabilities remain within the exclusive purview of member states, the new policy urges them to increase coordination to achieve the highest levels of interoperability between military and civilian space systems. The policy envisages that "sharing and pooling of the resources of European civilian and military space programmes, drawing on multiple use technology and common standards, would allow more cost-effective solutions."
Space Security Index. Space Security 2008. Waterloo, Ontario: Space Security Index, September 2008. [ 13 quotes ] [ page 66 ]